Growth of Trade Unions in India - Early Stage

    In the 18th century, Indian working class were suffering from twin evils of foreign imperialism and economic exploitation at the hands of foreign as well as native capitalists. The labour markets were largely unregulated. The workers were asked to work more than 11 hours a day. There is no ban on child labour. The Indian textile Industry posed severe competition on american textiles industry due to its unregulated cheap labour. Ironically, American Lancashire textile capitalist lobby was demanding to regulate Indian labour market. In 1881, Factory Act was passed. Later similar act was passed for jute industry also. These were the first regulation of condition of workers in Factories in India.

    The first ever political strike of Indian working class was happened in Bombay. It was the time when Congress was divided into moderates and extremists factions. Tilak the congress extremist leader campaigned for anti-British movement among the workers of Bombay during 1905. Later he was arrested for sedition in 1908. After that, the impact of first world war awakened leftist ideology and the organised trade unionism had grown in India. Drawing inspiration from October Revolution in Russia and setting up of International Labour Organisation, All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed in 1920 and Lala Lajpat Rai was elected as its president. Many Congress leaders maintained close relationship with trade unions many of them have presided over the AITUC meetings. During 1926, AITUC was divided into two factions, one was urging to get affiliated with International Federation of Trade Unions (Amsterdam) and other was in favour of Red International of Trade Unions (Moscow). Due to its (AITUC) communist viewpoint it was affiliated to Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat (Asia Pacific branch of RITU) and The Third International at Moscow (Comitern). During 1929, N.M.Joshi seceded from AITUC and formed AITUF (federation) due to the difference with the moderate leaders. Alarmed by the increasing transfer of unions to extremist hands, Government tried to pass "Public Safety Bill" but it couldn't, then it passed it as an ordinance. The "Trade Disputes Act" made the strikes in public services like railways as illegal.

    With above backdrop came the case of "Meerut Conspiracy". Many unionists in Meerut tried to organize a strike in Indian Railways in 1929. And they were arrested for "sedition" case by Government of Lord Irwin. This case has attracted comments from many international eminent persons like Prof. Einstein, US president Roosvelt. Though this case was filed to suppress the communists in India, this case actually strengthened the communist movement in India. And provided an opportunity to spread its ideology among people. During suppression of "National Movement" Govt had arrested many working class people, this taught a lesson of unity among trade unions. In 1934, Congress Socialist Party was founded and it worked for unity between moderate and radical trade unions. During 1938, AITUC, RTUC and NFTU came together. There was a substantial growth of trade unions in India, by 1938 the number of trade union was increased to 296.

Nehru's criticism on Gandhian strategy as "Struggle and Truce"

    In 1919, the Rowlatt Act created opposition all over India. And this gave opportunity for M K Gandhi to get into national stage. And later Khilafat movement also merged with this movement. During 1920, M K Gandhi announced Non Cooperation Movement as a sequel of Rowlatt Act, Jalianwala Bagh massacre and Khilafat movement. This Non Cooperation movement widened the social base of the protest and Hindus and Muslims were participated together. This movement brought the government to standstill due to boycott. But due to Chauri Choura incident where many policemen were burnt alive inside police station by the protesters, this movement was suspended by M K Gandhi. And the movement failed to achieve its demands.

    Later, the non-violent civil disobedience was demonstrated in Bardoli with the demand of cancelling the increase in tax. And it proved effective. The success at Bardoli quickened the temper of Congress and during 1930 M K Gandhi started Civil Disobedience Movement with his famous Dandi march to break the Salt Law of British as a symbol of Indian people's refusal to live under the British rule. British government ruthlessly  tried to suppress the movement. And the movement was temporarily suspended due to Gandhi-Irwin pact. But with the coming of new viceroy lord Willingdon situation got reversed and Gandhi returned from Second Round Table Conference as dejected person and rejuvenated the Civil Disobedience Movement. Anyhow the tempo of the movement was slackened during 1933. Gandhi advised suspension of the movement and continuation of individual sathyagraha. However, the movement came to an end during 1934 without any result.

    Viewing these above movements, J L Nehru criticized Gandhian strategy as struggle-true... struggle-truce... without any real victory. But Gandhi had the the view that any mass movement cannot be continued indefinitely. So, when he sensed the intensity of the protest is loosing, then he went for a compromise, because morale of the participants is to be considered. So, it is better to use the truce-time for some constructive work to energize the masses.

Role of "Khudai Khidmatgar" movement in freedom struggle

    In the 'Gandhian era' of Indian National Movement, under the leadership of M K Gandhi many mass movements were organised. In 1919, Khilafat movement was led by M K Gandhi in view of uniting the two majority communities (Hindu & Muslim) of India. During that movement Hindu-Muslim unity was very good. As a sequel, Non-cooperation movement also started in 1920. But due to Chauri-chaura incident the movement was suspended abruptly. This unexpected end of the movement frustrated some of the Muslim community. After 1923, communal riots became common.

    During the Civil Disobedience Movement social base of the National Movement became wider. Students, Women, Peasants and Zamindars alike were participated in that movement. But Muslim community participation was very low. Only few of the Muslim organizations participated in this. One of such noticeable organisation was the volunteer corps of the "Khudai Khidmatdgar" led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan in the North-West Frontier Province. This was originally a social reform movement also called as "Red Shirts" focused on education and eliminating the blood feuds. Gradually it entered into politics and started non-violent struggle against British Raj. And Ghaffar Khan's brother Dr.Khan Sahib became chief minister in the 1937 elections.

    However, after 1940 during the quit India movement this "Khudai Khidmatgar" movement faced heavy opposition from Muslim League supporters. After 1946, Congress party agreed for partition of India and referendum was held in North-West Frontier Province to decide whether NWFP wants to join Pakisthan or not. The Khudai Khidmatgar movement was abstained from voting in referendum and eventually NWFP became part of Pakisthan. After partition this movement was banned.

Chittagong Armoury Raid - Binod Bihari Chowdri

    It was the time when number of leftist thinkers started occupying Indian National Congress. The Indian National Movement started to take a socialist orientation. It was about 12 days after Gandhi had broken the British Salt Tax, a revolutionary moment took place in Bengal. The revolutionaries are the people who were not satisfied with Moderates as well as Extremist methods of Indian National Congress. It was 10 PM 18 Apr 1930, a group of ten men led by Ganesh Ghosh had captured the police armoury and as per plan another group led by Lokenath Bal had captured the Auxiliary Forces armoury. The telephone and telegraph wire were cut, so that the train movement was disrupted. The next step was to kill the Europeans at their club's headquarters. But it was Good Friday most of the Europeans were at their home and called backup troops from Calcutta, this was not expected by the revolutionary group. Through this raid the revolutionaries had captured the European club's headquarters in the Name of Indian Republican Army, Chittagong Branch. Surya sen or Masterda took the military salute outside the headquarters and the group marched towards the hills for safety.

    Soon after few days the revolutionaries were surrounded by the British troops. Some of them (Pritilata Waddedar) consumed cynade to avoid arrest, few (Harigopal Bal) were killed by the British troops and the rest were tried and punished. The leader Masterda was brutally tortured before hanged. After serving their sentences few of the group members (Binod Bihari Chowdhury, Lokenath Bal) were joined in Indian National Congress and few of them (Kalpana Datta, Ganesh Ghosh, Ambika Chakrabarty, Ananta Lal Sinha, Subodh Roy) joined Communist Party of India.

    Today (i.e., 10 Apr 2013) one of the group member of "Chittagong Armoury Raid", Binod Bihari Chowdhury has passed away. During partition he stayed back in East Pakisthan and in 2000 he was conferred with Independence Day Award one of the highest civilian award in Bangladesh.

The name "Lord Rippon" enshrined in the hearts of Indian Nationalists - Ilbert Bill

    After 1858, to generate faith among the people in British Crown Indian Judicial System was reformed. Indian High Courts Act 1861 was passed and the act merged the Sadr Diwani Adalat and Sadr Nizamat Adalat and established High Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras. And the Privy Council continued to be the highest court of appeal for India. The Civil Procedure Code and Criminal Procedure Code were also enacted in 1860 and 1861 respectively. These codes continue to be the basis for Indian legal system till date. 

    Despite the above reforms there were many defects in the Indian judicial system.

1. The revenue officer continue to act as a judge in Ryotwari provinces.
2. There was no clear separation between judiciary and executive.
3. The English and Europeans continued to enjoy special previleges.

Because of the defects, the Indian judges whatsoever their capabilities and qualifications could not trial European accused. To rectify this in 1883, Lord Rippon has proposed Ilbert bill which sought to abolish the judicial disqualifications based on racial distinction. After being passed by provincial governments, it was introduced in Imperial Legislative Council. Meanwhile oppositions to this bill grew. The English newspaper "Spectator" published - "Would you like to live in country where at any moment your wife would be liable to be sentenced on false charge of slapping an 'ayah' to three days imprisonment, the magistrate being copper coloured pagan who probably worships the Linga and certainly exalts an opportunity of showing that he can insult white persons with impunity". And obviously the provisions of the bill was watered down. And the modified version of the bill authorized the Sessions Judges and District Magistrates to try European offenders with the right to demand trial by a jury of 12 members of which half of them should be European or American. So, this controversy confirmed that Indians cannot be treated on par with Europeans.

    Unhappy with modifications in the bill, Lord Rippon tendered his resignation in 1884 and has ever since enshrined his name in the hearts of the nationalist party in India as great champion of their cause of the viceregal throne. And after two years in 1885 the Indian National Congress was founded and the nationalist movement began to take shape.

Education during British rule

    For the East India Company 'educating Indians' was not an interest area. In earlier time Company supported the oriental learning. In 1781, Warren Hasting founded Calcutta Madarasa. In 1784 and 1791, the Asiatic Society and Sanskirit College was founded. There was a pressure from Christian missionaries to introduce Christianity and English education in India, but it was turned down. In 1800, Wellesley established Fort William College in Calcutta. The "charter act of 1813" provided a lakh rupees for improvement in literature and promotion of knowledge in science among Indians. Anyway this fund was kept unspent till 1823. Meanwhile many initiatives were taken by missionaries and others to bring in modern education. Robert Mayo, a missionary established a school in Chinsura. In 1817, Hindu College was established, which was the brain child of Raja Rammohan Roy and David Hare. After that, many institutions and societies were formed to promote modern liberal education. In 1818, "Calcutta school society" was formed with three-fold policy, 1. Supervise the limited number of model schools. 2. Improving existing indigenous schools. 3. Facilitate learning in English at higher education. Early in 1814, Thomson - a missionary proposed first comprehensive plan for education in Bengal, but in vain. 

    In 1823, General Committee of Public Instruction was formed. Till then, company's policy was in favor of oriental learning. But under the influence of James Mill, Court of Directors sent a Despatch, which favored western education. In 1829, Govt. policy declared that English should be the public business language eventually. Bentinck convinced that English is the key to all improvement. He was supported by James Mill and Rammohan Roy. In 1834, Macaulay arrived as a law member in Governor General's Council and made the indecent comment about oriental learning - "A single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole literature of India and Arabia". In 1835, Bentinck took the resolution that Govt's object should be promoting English literature and science and the funds would be used in English education alone. This resolution gave impetus to Education in India and many colleges were founded (Calcutta Medical College, Elphinstone Institution of Bombay, Hooghly college). In 1837, Persian language was replaced by English as official language. In districts, vernaculars and English were replaced the Persian language. In 1842, the General Committee on Public Instruction was replaced by powerful Council of Education. In 1844, English became the passport for public employment.

    In 1854, the famous "Wood's Despatch" was laid down. It is considered as th Magna Carta of English education in India. The recommendations were, 

1. Its government's responsibility to safeguard educational interests of Indians.
2. The aim of educational system is to produce trustworthy men for holding office  (clerks) under the Company.
3. English should be used as the medium of language, but not in all levels. English should be used only when people have gained sufficient knowledge in it.
4. Study of Indian language should be encouraged to make Govt-people communication easier.
5. Abandoned the Filtration Theory of Macaulay - "Education should be imparted to upper classes only and it would automatically filter down to lower masses"
6. System of grants-in-aid for education was introduced.
7. At lower level - vernacular education, then Anglo-Vernacular High Schools and affiliated colleges at district level.
8. Emphasis on vocational training in agriculture, medicine and teaching ...etc.
9. Special facilities for femal education.
10. Introducing comprehensive scholarships for deserving.
11. Establishment of universities in India on the pattern of London University.
12. Dept. of Public Instruction under the Director General of Education.

This scheme was criticized on the grounds that it was a slavish imitation of English model and this scheme makes education as a routine matter of administration. However, this system laid foundation for English education in India and continued as a base for next five decades.

Okay, to remember the above things in order....

First - Phase of oriental learning - Asiatic Society & Sanskirit College

Second - 1 lakh for Indian education- Charter act 1813, but still nothing happens

Third - Private initiatives and missionary efforts to bring liberal English education

Fourth - General Committee on Public Instruction and James Mill for western education

Fifth - Macualay comes, English to be official language

Lastly - Woods Despatch. :-)

"Buxar confirmed the decisions of Plassey"

    V A Smith, a historian and an indologist, in his writings tells us that the Buxar war completed the work of Plassey. Lets analyse the facts which led him to conclude this way.

The battle of Plassey: 
    The name Plassey is angliced version of Palashi, a place situated on the bank of Bagirathi. In this place in 1757, war between the British and the Nawab of Bengal was happened. First, in 1756, Siraj-ud-daula became Nawab of the Bengal. His relation with the British strained due to their support to the revalary Shaukat Jung who claimed the throne. The previleges conferred to the British were misused by them which led to loss of revenue to the Nawab. The Nawab has prohibited British from fortifying their settlements. Because of these reasons Robert Clive wanted to do away with the Nawab and conspired with Mir Jafar, the commenter-in-chief of the Nawab army. As a result war happened in Plassey. And Mir Jafar became the Nawab.

    But Mir Jafar could not manage the heavy demand for money from the British. Soon he was also ditched by the British and Mir Kasim, the son-in-law of Nawab came to the throne. Mir Kasim was a talented person and he was not acted like puppet of British. He reorganised troops, set up factories to manufacture arms, strengthened financial position and he stopped the company personnel from doing illegal private trade. So the British defeated him and reinstated Mir Jafar to the throne.

The battle of Buxar:

    Mir Kasim got shelter in Oudh. And he conspired with Nawab of Oudh and Mughal Emperor Sha Alam II to defeat the British. In 1764, the battle was fought at Buxar and ultimately the British won. Through this war the Mughal Emperor also was defeated. The British acquired commanding position in north west Bengal and got connection with upper India.

    The battle Plassey was a conspiracy of the British. Through that the British wanted to keep the Nawab as figurehead and the wanted to hold the real power. But the Buxar war proved their military superiority and confirmed the company's rule upon Bengal. And also in 1765, Clive came to a settlement with the Mughal emperor and Nawab of Oudh which is know as reaty of Allahabad. Through that British obtained Diwani rights over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Thus, Buxar has completed the work of Plassey.